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Bipolar spectrum disorders in divers: risks, recognition, and recommendations
Abraham L Querido1,2, Thijs T Wingelaar2,3
1 Praktijk Querido, Hilversum, the Netherlands
2 Dutch Society of Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
3 Royal Netherlands Navy, Diving Medical Center, Den Helder, the Netherlands
Corresponding author: Dr Abraham L Querido, Praktijk Querido, Veerstraat 25, 1211 HJ Hilversum, the Netherlands
Keywords
Bipolar disorder; Diving; Executive function; Psychotropic drugs; Risk assessment
Abstract
(Querido AL, Wingelaar TT. Bipolar spectrum disorders in divers: risks, recognition, and recommendations. Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine. 2026 30 June;56(2):170−176. doi: 10.28920/dhm56.2.170-176. PMID: 42290577.)
Bipolar disorder is a recurrent psychiatric condition characterised by episodic mood disturbances, residual functional impairment, and high rates of psychiatric and medical comorbidity. While many individuals achieve symptomatic remission, persistent deficits in cognition, emotional regulation, and insight may remain, raising concerns for participation in safety-critical activities such as scuba diving. This systematic review synthesised evidence from psychiatric, occupational, aviation, and diving medicine literature to examine the clinical course of bipolar disorder, treatment considerations, functional outcomes, and safety-relevant factors pertinent to fitness-to-dive assessments. Bipolar disorder exhibits marked heterogeneity in syndromal and functional outcomes. Even during euthymia, subtle impairments in attention, executive functioning, and decision-making may persist. Pharmacological stability is essential for diving, but treatment regimens, particularly lithium use, polypharmacy, and antidepressant therapy, introduce additional considerations. Comorbidity, circadian disruption, sleep deprivation, and reduced insight during early relapse further complicate risk assessment. Empirical data on diving outcomes in individuals with bipolar disorder are scarce, necessitating reliance on expert opinion and extrapolation from related safety-critical domains. Fitness-to-dive assessments in bipolar disorder should prioritise sustained functional stability, reliable treatment adherence, and illness insight over symptom absence alone. A cautious, individualised approach is warranted, incorporating medication effects, comorbidity, operational context, and relapse-prevention planning, supported by collaboration between mental health professionals and diving medical examiners.
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